Language Learning Strategies: Theory and Research
Abstract
What is considered by many to be the pioneering work in the field of language learning strategies was carried out in the mid seventies by researchers such as Rubin (1975) and Stern (1975). Although nearly a quarter of a century has passed since then, the language learning strategy field continues to be characterised by “no consensus” (O'Malley et al, 1985, p.22) and the concept of language learning strategies itself remains “fuzzy” (Ellis, 1994, p.529). This article attempts to clarify some of the fuzziness by trying first of all to establish basic terminology and going on to discuss definition and classification of language learning strategies. The development of language learning strategy theory and how it fits into the framework of contemporary language teaching and learning for students who speak other languages is examined, and research on language learning strategies to date is reviewed.
Introduction
As Wenden (1985) reminds us, there is an old proverb which states: “Give a man a fish and he eats for a day. Teach him how to fish and he eats for a lifetime”. Applied to the language teaching and learning field, this proverb might be interpreted to mean that if students are provided with answers, the immediate problem is solved. But if they are taught the strategies to work out the answers for themselves, they are empowered to manage their own learning. Since the pioneering work carried out in the mid-seventies (for instance by Rubin, 1975; Stern, 1975) there has been an awareness that language learning strategies have the potential to be “an extremely powerful learning tool” (O'Malley, Chamot, Stewner-Manzanares, Kupper, and Russo, 1985, p.43 ). In spite of this awareness, and in spite of much useful and interesting work having been carried out in the intervening years (nearly a quarter of a century), the language learning strategy field continues to be characterised by “confusion” and “no consensus” (O'Malley et al, 1985, p.22) while Ellis (1994, p.529) comments that the language learning strategy concept remains “fuzzy”. Considering the potential usefulness of language learning strategies as a language teaching and learning tool, I would like to try to put this rather fuzzy picture in to some sort of perspective. I will begin by looking at the basic terminology, the frequently conflicting use of which does nothing to aid consensus. I will then discuss definition and classification of language learning strategies, and go on from there to look at language learning strategies from a theoretical perspective before reviewing language learning strategy research to date.
Terminology
Before attempting to define and classify language learning strategies as used by speakers of other languages, I would like first of all to provide a rationale for the choice of the term strategy. Although used by many prominent writers (such as Rubin, 1975; O'Malley et al, 1985; Oxford , 1990) the term strategy is not without its controversy. Consensus is not assisted by some writers' use of conflicting terminology such as learning behaviours (Wesche, 1977; Politzer and McGroarty, 1985), tactics (Seliger, 1984) and techniques (Stern, 1992) more or less (but not always exactly) synonymously with the term strategy. Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991, p.199) opt for the term strategy since, as they point out, Rubin (1975) used it “in perhaps the earliest study in this area and it enjoys the widest currency today”. For this reason, strategy is the term which will be used for the purposes of the present work.
Definition and Classification
Since the work done by researchers such as Rubin (1975) and Stern (1975) in the midseventies, awareness has been slowly growing of the importance of the strategies used by learners in the language learning process, since ultimately, like the proverbial horse led to water but which must do the drinking itself, even with the best teachers and methods, students are the only ones who can actually do the learning. As Nyikos and Oxford (1993, p.11) put it: “learning begins with the learner”. This growing awareness has resulted in more recent years in what Skehan (1989, p.285) calls an “explosion of activity” in the field of language learning strategy research. In spite of this activity, however, defining and classifying language learning strategies remains no easy task. Wenden and Rubin (1987, p.7) talk of “the elusive nature of the term”, Ellis (1994, p.529) describes the concept as “fuzzy”, while O'Malley et al (1985, p.22) put it this way: There is no consensus on what constitutes a learning strategy in second language learning or how these differ from other types of learner activities. Learning, teaching and communication strategies are often interlaced in discussions of language learning and are often applied to the same behaviour. Further, even within the group of activities most often referred to as learning strategies, there is considerable confusion about definitions of specific strategies and about the hierarchic relationship among strategies. One of the earliest researchers in this field, Rubin (1975, p.43) provided a very broad definition of learning strategies as “the techniques or devices which a learner may use to acquire knowledge”. In 1981 (pp.124-126) she identified two kinds of learning strategies: those which contribute directly to learning, and those which contribute indirectly to learning. The direct learning strategies she divided into six types (clarification/verification, monitoring, memorization, guessing/inductive inferencing, deductive reasoning, practice), and the indirect learning strategies she divided into two types (creating opportunities for practice, production tricks). Under production tricks, Rubin included communication strategies. This is a controversial inclusion since learning strategies and communication strategies are seen by some as two quite separate manifestations of language learner behaviour. Brown (1980, p.87), for instance, draws a clear distinction between learning strategies and communication strategies on the grounds that “communication is the output modality and learning is the input modality”. Brown suggests that, while a learner generally applies the same fundamental strategies (such as rule transference) used in learning a language to communicating in that language, there are other communication strategies such as avoidance or message abandonment which do not result in learning. Brown (1994, p.118) concedes, however, that “in the arena of linguistic interaction, it is sometimes difficult.....to distinguish between the two”. Ellis (1986) is another who views strategies for learning and strategies for using, including communication strategies or “devices for compensating for inadequate resources” (p.165), as quite different manifestations of a more general phenomenon which he calls learner strategies. He argues that it is even possible that successful use of communication strategies may actually prevent language learning since skilful compensation for lack of linguistic knowledge may obviate the need for learning. Tarone (1980) takes a different point of view. She suggests that by helping students to say what they want or need to say, communication strategies can help to expand language. Even if the communication is not perfect in grammatical or lexical terms, in the process of using the language for communication the learner will be exposed to language input which may result in learning and which therefore may be considered a learning strategy. The key point in this argument would seem to be that in order to be considered a learning strategy rather than a communication strategy, the “basic motivation is not to communicate but to learn” (Tarone, 1980, p.419). The problems with differentiating between communication strategies and learning strategies on the grounds of motivation or intention, however, as Tarone (1981) acknowledges, are that we have, in practice, no way of determining what motivates a learner, that learners may have a dual motivation to both learn and communicate, or that learners may learn language even when the basic motivation was to communicate. As Tarone (1981,p.290) aptly comments, “the relationship of learning strategies to communication strategies is somewhat problematic”.
Research into Language Learning Strategies
One of the difficulties with researching language learning strategies is that they cannot usually be observed directly; they can only be inferred from language learner behaviour. As Ellis (1986, p.14) rather colourfully puts it: “It is a bit like trying to work out the classification system of a library when the only evidence to go on consists of the few books you have been allowed to take out”. Given the difficulties of such a task, the challenge has been to devise a means first of all to record and subsequently to interpret the phenomena involved, a process which Ellis (1986, p.188) likens to “stumbling blindfold round a room to find a hidden object”. Over the years, different researchers have employed a variety of approaches to this rather daunting task, one of the most frequently used of which has been the gathering of data about good language learners and about what it is that they do that makes them more successful than slower language learners.
